VCAA Psychology How is scientific inquiry used to investigate mental processes and psychological functioning?
15 sample questions with marking guides and sample answers
Researchers at a university are planning to examine the impact of protective factors designed to increase resilience.
A sample of 100 participants will be randomly selected from people who respond to an advertisement placed in national newspapers and on social media. All participants will complete a self-report resilience scale three times: at the beginning of the study, immediately after the experimental conditions end, and six months later.
Participants will be randomly allocated to one of three conditions for six months:
- a condition in which participants will receive fortnightly coaching about diet and sleep behaviours
- a condition in which participants will be counselled fortnightly in the use of cognitive behavioural strategies
- a ‘no treatment’ condition
Using appropriate psychological terminology, evaluate the proposed design for this study. Your evaluation should consider the method and procedures of the investigation, and at least one effect of these on the analysis and/or interpretation of results and possible conclusions that may be drawn.
Reveal Answer
This study aims to investigate the impact of protective factors designed to increase resilience, which is the ability to cope with adversity and ‘bounce back’ from struggles. It focuses on diet and sleep behaviours and cognitive behavioural strategies which follow a biopsychosocial model. The proposed design investigates both biological and psychological protective factors, however it does omit social protective factors, including types of social support (appraisal support, tangible assistance, emotional support and information support).
This proposed design uses convenience sampling method which is quick and easy, however involves no attempt to make the sample representative of the sample. This study also uses an independent groups design which is suitable for this study as it eliminates any order effects from occurring, however there could be extraneous variables due to individual participant differences, such as age, gender, lifestyle and willingness to implement any strategies they are coached in. This research does use standardised procedures, as all participants are allocated to the conditions for the same amount of time (6 months), and they are all completing the self report style 3 times (at the beginning of the study, immediately after, and 6 months after the experimental conditions end). The use of a self report to collect data is providing qualitative data which is easy to analyse, and can be completed quickly and anonymously, but is a subjective measure of reporting.
These methods and procedures could have multiple effects on the analysis or interpretation of results. The use of a self-report is a subjective measure of reporting. This means the results of the experiment could be affected by the participants own beliefs, attitudes and/or opinions. This could affect how the results are interpreted, as the ratings may be inaccurate and unreliable. The independent groups design would also effect the analysis of results. Due to this design not controlling any extraneous variables due to individual participant differences (age, gender, lifestyle) this would mean the results could be analysed in multiple ways. They would not be analysed in terms of the impact of protective factors on results, but insted as the impact of a number of extraneous variables on resilience ratings. This would effect the analysis and interpretation of the results, as well as both the validity and reliability of this study.
Possible conclusions that may be drawn from this study would be that diet and sleep strategies as well as cognitive behavioural strategies have a positive impact on increasing resilience levels. However, when drawing these conclusions, researchers would need to be mindful that the results are being generated from a subjective method of reporting, and that there were multiple extraneous variables which could have confounded the results produced. When drawing conclusions, researchers would also need to be thinking about any generalisations, which is the ability of the researchers to apply the results to other members of the population, particularly to which the participants were selected from. Due to using a convenience sample, no generalisations from this study can be made, as the sample is biased and not as all representative of the population.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Provides a comprehensive, balanced, and highly structured evaluation of the proposed design. Identifies and thoroughly evaluates multiple methods and procedures, reflecting on possible solutions to identified problems. Insightfully analyses the effects of these design features on the analysis, interpretation of results, validity, reliability, and conclusions. Uses psychological terminology accurately and fluently. | 10 |
Provides a comprehensive and balanced evaluation of the proposed design. Identifies and evaluates multiple methods and procedures, suggesting some solutions to identified problems. Clearly analyses the effects of these design features on the analysis, interpretation of results, and conclusions. Uses psychological terminology accurately. | 9 |
Provides a thorough evaluation of the proposed design. Identifies and evaluates several methods and procedures. Analyses the effects of these design features on the analysis, interpretation of results, and conclusions. Uses psychological terminology appropriately. | 8 |
Provides a good evaluation of the proposed design. Identifies and evaluates some methods and procedures. Explains the effects of these design features on the analysis, interpretation of results, and conclusions. Uses psychological terminology appropriately. | 7 |
Provides a satisfactory evaluation of the proposed design. Identifies and discusses some methods and procedures. Explains at least one effect of these design features on the analysis, interpretation of results, or conclusions. Uses some psychological terminology appropriately. | 6 |
Provides a basic evaluation of the proposed design. Identifies some methods and procedures but evaluation may be superficial or lack balance. Briefly mentions an effect on results or conclusions. Uses basic psychological terminology. | 5 |
Provides a limited evaluation of the proposed design. Identifies a few methods or procedures. Attempts to link to results or conclusions but explanation is weak, unclear, or generic. Uses limited psychological terminology. | 4 |
Provides a very limited evaluation. Identifies one or two methods or procedures. Link to results or conclusions is missing or inaccurate. Uses minimal psychological terminology. | 3 |
Shows minimal understanding of the proposed design. Identifies a method or procedure (e.g., sampling, self-report) but provides no meaningful evaluation. Psychological terminology is absent or used incorrectly. | 2 |
Shows very little understanding of the question. Provides a generic or mostly irrelevant statement about the study. | 1 |
No response or no relevant psychological information provided. | 0 |
Bert is an older man living on the West Coast of Australia who read an interesting study on the behaviour of magpies on the East Coast of Australia. This study recounted a story of a young girl who befriended a tribe of magpies by feeding them a variety of foods. Bert began planning a study to see if his local magpies would behave in a similar way and become his friend if he fed them in his suburban front yard.
A high-quality research design will consider the practical issues associated with collecting data. Practical issues are those elements of the research design that can impact upon the realistic conduct of the research or the standardisation of procedures between participants.
Deduce one practical consideration Bert would have to address in his study design for each of the elements below.
List three steps associated with planning psychological research.
Reveal Answer
- Identify a research issue or problem to investigate
- Formulate a hypothesis
- Choose a research design
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies the need to identify a research issue or problem to investigate | 1 |
Identifies the need to formulate a hypothesis | 1 |
Identifies the need to choose a research design or design the method | 1 |
Subject sampling
Reveal Answer
Bert should ensure the magpies are the same ones that visit his yard each day.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
States that Bert should ensure the magpies are monitored | 1 |
States that they must be the same ones that visit his yard each day | 1 |
Data collection method
Reveal Answer
Bert is looking for a change in friendship level, which is a subjective experience and will be difficult to measure in birds.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies that Bert is looking for a change in friendship level | 1 |
Explains that this is a subjective experience and will be difficult to measure in birds | 1 |
Procedure
Reveal Answer
Bert will have to decide how he will conduct his study with regard to timeframes, feeding protocols, and how he will manage extraneous and confounding variables.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
States that Bert will have to decide how he will conduct his study | 1 |
Identifies that this includes timeframes, feeding protocols, and managing extraneous and confounding variables | 1 |
Define 'reliability' in research by applying the concept to Bert's study.
Reveal Answer
Bert will need to ensure that his procedure and data collection tool are likely to generate the same results under the same conditions.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies that Bert will need to ensure his procedure and data collection tool are reliable | 1 |
Explains that they must be likely to generate the same results under the same conditions | 1 |
To provide a result that can be generalisable, a research design should have a high degree of validity.
Argue whether Bert's study is likely to have high or low levels of validity, giving two reasons for your response.
Reveal Answer
There are low levels of validity.
This is because (any 2 of the following):
- there are significant differences between studies, resulting in low concurrent validity
- Bert wanted to compare magpie behaviour towards himself and a young female.
- Bert has not developed a sufficient theoretical basis for his research design, leading to low construct validity
- he will have difficulty drawing a conclusion.
- in a naturalistic setting, there is likely to be a high number of extraneous or confounding variables.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies low levels of validity | 1 |
1 mark for each correct reason (any 2 of):
| 2 |
Use the following information to answer the question.
Lucinda read that a dog's breed influences the effectiveness of a reward in the training process. To investigate this, she conducted an experiment using two breeds: beagles and poodles.
In the first part of the experiment, Lucinda compared how many sessions of training were needed to get one group of beagles and poodles to sit in a designated spot for 30 seconds, using a dog biscuit as a reward. In the second part of the experiment, Lucinda compared how many sessions of training were needed to get a different group of beagles and poodles to sit in a designated spot for 30 seconds, using a dog toy as a reward.
Which one of the following is a possible conclusion for this experiment?
The dog biscuit will be more effective when training poodles than beagles.
Poodles will be more likely to respond to the dog biscuit than the dog toy.
Beagles sit for longer than poodles in a designated spot when no reward is given.
Beagles require fewer training sessions than poodles when rewarded with a dog biscuit rather than a dog toy.
Reveal Answer
The dog biscuit will be more effective when training poodles than beagles.
While this compares the two breeds, it only looks at one type of reward and uses the vague term 'more effective' rather than the specific dependent variable measured in the experiment.
Poodles will be more likely to respond to the dog biscuit than the dog toy.
The experiment measures the number of training sessions needed to achieve a specific behavior, not the overall likelihood of a dog responding to a reward.
Beagles sit for longer than poodles in a designated spot when no reward is given.
The experiment does not include a control group with 'no reward,' and the time spent sitting is fixed at 30 seconds rather than being the measured variable.
Beagles require fewer training sessions than poodles when rewarded with a dog biscuit rather than a dog toy.
This is a valid possible conclusion because it directly addresses the hypothesis by comparing the interaction between dog breed and reward type, using the specific dependent variable measured (number of training sessions).
Angelique wanted to do a study looking at the impact of parents’ singing on toddlers’ aggression levels. She developed two methods by which she could gather data for the study.
In the first method, she had 100 parents tally the number of times they sang in front of their children over a week and rate their child’s general aggression level for that week from 0–10.
In the second method, she had 100 families volunteer to take part. Fifty agreed not to sing in front of their children at all and rate their aggression levels. The other 50 families were asked to sing around their children fifteen times each day for a week and rate their aggression levels using a well-known aggression scale.
Identify which method is experimental and give two reasons for your answer.
Reveal Answer
The second, as it used manipulated variables and used a research design.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies the second | 1 |
States that it used manipulated variables | 1 |
States that it used a research design | 1 |
Explain what is meant by non-experimental research.
Reveal Answer
It does not use experimental methods, does not involve manipulation of variables, and does not establish groups for comparison.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
States that it does not use experimental methods | 1 |
States that it does not involve manipulation of variables | 1 |
States that it does not establish groups for comparison or uses pre-existing groups | 1 |
List three characteristics of non-scientific research.
Reveal Answer
It uses casual observations, does not follow a repeatable method, and does not involve formal logical reasoning.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
States that it uses casual observations | 1 |
States that it does not follow a repeatable method | 1 |
States that it does not involve formal logical reasoning | 1 |
Design an operational hypothesis for one of her studies.
Reveal Answer
The hypothesis should include:
- identify population
- manipulate independent variable
- state dependent variable
- state direction of dependent variable
- how dependent variable is measured
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies the population | 1 |
States the independent variable manipulation | 1 |
States the dependent variable | 1 |
States the direction of the dependent variable | 1 |
Describes how the dependent variable is measured | 1 |
While Angelique came up with these two methods for collecting data, she also considered a third. Parents were able to send children to a residential insect-hunting camp. She asked the toddlers if she could do a study on them and they said ‘yes’. Of the toddlers that attended, she sang to half of the group and did not sing around the second half. She would personally rate their aggression levels over a week and then plot the data. Aside from the logistics, this raised two big ethical issues for Angelique and she decided not to pursue this study design.
Identify and explain the two main ethical issues, aside from deception, in the study above.
Reveal Answer
Any 2 of:
- Informed consent was breached as children cannot consent and no information was given before asking for consent.
- The role of the experimenter was breached as they could have caused harm by trying to make the children aggressive.
- Participants' rights were breached as the children did not have the right to withdraw or participate voluntarily.
Breach 1
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies a breach (Informed consent, The role of the experimenter, or Participants' rights) | 1 |
Provides the first valid explanation point for the identified breach (e.g., toddlers/children cannot consent; could have caused harm; children did not have the right to withdraw) | 1 |
Provides the second valid explanation point for the identified breach (e.g., no information was given before asking for consent; this was by trying to make the children aggressive; they did not participate voluntarily) | 1 |
Breach 2
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies a breach (Informed consent, The role of the experimenter, or Participants' rights) | 1 |
Provides the first valid explanation point for the identified breach (e.g., toddlers/children cannot consent; could have caused harm; children did not have the right to withdraw) | 1 |
Provides the second valid explanation point for the identified breach (e.g., no information was given before asking for consent; this was by trying to make the children aggressive; they did not participate voluntarily) | 1 |
Use the following information to answer the question.
Study 1: The characteristics of 'event memories' in dogs
Recent research has summarised numerous case studies regarding the autobiographical memory of dogs. Findings suggest that dogs have long-term memories of past events, as 80% of owners reported that their pet had shown signs of remembering an event. The most reported long-term memories involved dogs locating hidden items.
The following is an excerpt of a case study collected during Study 1.
Case Study A: One owner reported that their dog had escaped through their fence to the neighbour's house, then in through the neighbour's cat door to eat the cat's food. Several years later, on a day when their dog had not been fed, it again escaped through the same fence and in through the same neighbour's cat door to get to the food.
Source: Adapted from A Lewis and D Berntsen, 'Pet memoirs: The characteristics of event memories in cats and dogs, as reported by their owners', Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2020, 222 [104885] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104885
Researchers conducted the investigation again six months later in Study 2. The table below shows the number of dog owners used in Study 1 and Study 2.
| Study | Number of dog owners |
|---|---|
| 1 | 106 |
| 2 | 256 |
Study 2 also involved an improved questionnaire with greater clarity and more prompts for details of their dogs' memories.
What was the purpose of conducting Study 2?
to test the reproducibility of Study 1 and improve the validity
to test the external validity of Study 1 and improve the repeatability
to generate a 'true value' from which the accuracy of Study 2 could be assessed
to decrease the impact of systematic errors and improve the overall precision of the data
Reveal Answer
to test the reproducibility of Study 1 and improve the validity
Conducting the study again at a different time tests reproducibility, while improving the questionnaire to better capture the intended information improves the study's validity.
to test the external validity of Study 1 and improve the repeatability
Repeatability refers to conducting an experiment under the exact same conditions. Because Study 2 used an improved questionnaire and a different sample size, it tests reproducibility rather than repeatability.
to generate a 'true value' from which the accuracy of Study 2 could be assessed
A 'true value' cannot be established for subjective questionnaire data about dog memories, as there is no objective, measurable standard to compare against.
to decrease the impact of systematic errors and improve the overall precision of the data
Increasing the sample size decreases the impact of random errors (improving precision), but it does not decrease the impact of systematic errors. Improving the questionnaire addresses validity rather than precision.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Professor Dominique wants to test an intervention for stress management. She plans to recruit participants from the university community and randomly allocate them to groups of four. Participants will be told that they will be locked in an escape room until they either solve the puzzles in there or an hour passes. After reading the participant information sheet about the specific purposes of the study and signing a consent form, the groups will be further randomised to either the experimental condition or the control condition.
The groups in the experimental condition will be given a 30-minute presentation by one of her research assistants on effective coping strategies to help alleviate stress, then put into the escape room. The groups in the control condition will immediately go into the escape room after providing consent.
Immediately after leaving the escape room, the participants will rate their feelings of stress across the study period, then Professor Dominique plans to discuss the findings with the participants and any uncomfortable experiences they had. The groups will be assessed on how long it took them to escape and their self-reported stress. The key outcome will be the difference between the two conditions.
Which experimental research design and sampling procedure is Professor Dominique adopting?
repeated measures with random sampling
independent groups with stratified sampling
independent groups with convenience sampling
repeated measures with random stratified sampling
Reveal Answer
repeated measures with random sampling
This is incorrect because participants only experience one condition, making it an independent groups design rather than repeated measures. Additionally, recruiting from the university community is convenience sampling, not random sampling.
independent groups with stratified sampling
While the study does use an independent groups design, it does not use stratified sampling because the researcher did not divide the population into distinct subgroups before selecting participants.
independent groups with convenience sampling
This is correct because participants are assigned to either the experimental or control condition (independent groups design), and they are recruited from the readily available university community (convenience sampling).
repeated measures with random stratified sampling
This is incorrect because participants do not experience both conditions (which would be repeated measures), and the sampling method does not involve randomly selecting from predefined subgroups (random stratified sampling).
This question refer to an investigation that partially modified the methodology of Bargh, Chen and Burrows (1996) (Experiment 2). The table shows data from the investigation.
| Number of elderly primes | Walking time (s) |
|---|---|
| 0 | 7.30 |
| 1 | 7.45 |
| 2 | 7.62 |
| 3 | 7.89 |
| 4 | 7.91 |
| 5 | 8.05 |
| 6 | 8.28 |
| 7 | 8.28 |
| 8 | 8.28 |
| 9 | 9.12 |
| 10 | 9.12 |
| A conclusion that could be drawn from the analysed result is |
the number of elderly primes had no effect on walking time.
the number of elderly primes had little effect on walking time.
as the number of elderly primes increased, walking time increased.
as the number of elderly primes increased, walking time decreased.
Reveal Answer
the number of elderly primes had no effect on walking time.
This is incorrect because the results indicate a specific relationship between the variables, contradicting the claim that the primes had no effect.
the number of elderly primes had little effect on walking time.
This is incorrect because the data demonstrates a clear trend rather than a negligible or small effect.
as the number of elderly primes increased, walking time increased.
This is correct. The results show a positive correlation where exposure to more elderly-related primes caused participants to walk slower, thereby increasing the time taken.
as the number of elderly primes increased, walking time decreased.
This is incorrect because it suggests an inverse relationship (walking faster), whereas the actual result was an increase in walking time.
Use the following information to answer the question.
A study was conducted to develop a culturally specific program aimed at strengthening the social and emotional wellbeing (SEWB) of Aboriginal communities. The study was led by Aboriginal researchers and involved community consultations when developing the program.
The program developed was then implemented in multiple communities and evaluated. The findings from the evaluation showed a strong correlation between self-determination and improved mental wellbeing outcomes, indicating that culturally specific programs likely enhanced SEWB.
Why did the researchers implement the program in multiple communities?
to increase repeatability as Aboriginal communities share similar needs
to increase external validity by recognising cultural and regional differences between communities
to improve internal validity by identifying consistent wellbeing outcomes that apply to Aboriginal communities
to control for extraneous variables, including cultural uniqueness, so that wellbeing outcomes would be relevant to all communities
Reveal Answer
to increase repeatability as Aboriginal communities share similar needs
Aboriginal communities are highly diverse and do not all share the exact same needs. Implementing the program in multiple communities tests generalizability, not just repeatability.
to increase external validity by recognising cultural and regional differences between communities
External validity refers to how well study results can be generalized to other populations or settings. Testing the program across multiple diverse communities ensures the findings are applicable beyond a single group.
to improve internal validity by identifying consistent wellbeing outcomes that apply to Aboriginal communities
Internal validity refers to the degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors. Testing in multiple communities improves external validity, not internal validity.
to control for extraneous variables, including cultural uniqueness, so that wellbeing outcomes would be relevant to all communities
Cultural uniqueness is not an extraneous variable to be controlled or eliminated in this context. Instead, the study embraces this diversity to see if the program is effective across various distinct communities.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Dr Dhanial investigated the effect of leading questions on recall. In the first week of the semester, university students were randomly allocated to two groups (Group A and Group B) and asked to estimate how often they ate chocolate during the summer holidays. Different forms of the question were used for each group:
• 'Did you eat chocolate frequently and, if so, how much per week?'
• 'Did you eat chocolate occasionally and, if so, how much per week?'
The table below represents Dr Dhanial's results.
| Group | Leading word | Estimate of chocolate consumption per week |
|---|---|---|
| A | frequently | 4.1 |
| B | occasionally | 0.8 |
Which one of the following outlines a criticism of Dr Dhanial's study?
Participants were deceived by the use of leading questions.
It is unlikely that the results of the investigation will be able to be replicated.
Order effects may have an impact on participants' responses due to boredom or fatigue.
Using participants from one specific source means the results may not be generalised to the wider population.
Reveal Answer
Participants were deceived by the use of leading questions.
The use of leading questions is the independent variable being manipulated to test the hypothesis, rather than an unethical deception of the participants.
It is unlikely that the results of the investigation will be able to be replicated.
There is no evidence to suggest the study cannot be replicated; in fact, studies investigating leading questions are typically highly replicable.
Order effects may have an impact on participants' responses due to boredom or fatigue.
The study uses an independent groups design where participants are only in one condition, meaning order effects like boredom or fatigue do not apply.
Using participants from one specific source means the results may not be generalised to the wider population.
The sample consists entirely of university students, which is a narrow and unrepresentative demographic. This limits the population validity and the ability to generalise the findings to the wider public.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Researchers conducted an experiment to investigate the influence of the chemical theophylline on the circadian rhythm of rats in dark conditions. Theophylline is found naturally in brewed tea and acts to stimulate central nervous system activity. The study was conducted on 10 rats, which were administered a single theophylline dose (0.5 mg/kg) one hour before they fell asleep, and were then monitored for two days using an electroencephalograph (EEG) with no access to natural or artificial light. Three major states of consciousness were analysed during the 48 hours of observation: waking, NREM sleep and REM sleep.
The use of a control group in this study would require a group of rats that
receives 0.5 mg/kg of a salt solution.
is exposed to full light conditions for one of the two days.
is sleep-deprived for the two days following administration of theophylline.
is a different species of rats, genetically modified to not digest theophylline.
Reveal Answer
receives 0.5 mg/kg of a salt solution.
A control group must be treated exactly the same as the experimental group, except for the independent variable. Administering a salt solution (placebo) controls for the effects of the injection process itself.
is exposed to full light conditions for one of the two days.
Exposing the rats to light introduces a new independent variable, which would confound the results since the experiment specifically studies circadian rhythms in dark conditions.
is sleep-deprived for the two days following administration of theophylline.
Sleep deprivation introduces a major confounding variable and does not serve as a baseline to measure the effects of theophylline on normal sleep cycles.
is a different species of rats, genetically modified to not digest theophylline.
A control group must be as genetically and biologically similar to the experimental group as possible. Using a different, genetically modified species introduces significant confounding variables.
This question refer to an investigation that partially modified the methodology of Bargh, Chen and Burrows (1996) (Experiment 2). The table shows data from the investigation.
| Number of elderly primes | Walking time (s) |
|---|---|
| 0 | 7.30 |
| 1 | 7.45 |
| 2 | 7.62 |
| 3 | 7.89 |
| 4 | 7.91 |
| 5 | 8.05 |
| 6 | 8.28 |
| 7 | 8.28 |
| 8 | 8.28 |
| 9 | 9.12 |
| 10 | 9.12 |
What is the mean walking time?
8.05 s
8.12 s
8.28 s
9.12 s
Reveal Answer
8.05 s
This value represents the median (the middle score of the ordered dataset), whereas the question asks for the mean.
8.12 s
The mean is calculated by summing all walking times () and dividing by the total number of observations (), resulting in approximately s.
8.28 s
This value represents the mode (the most frequently occurring score), appearing three times in the data.
9.12 s
This is the maximum value in the dataset, not the arithmetic average.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Dr Dhanial investigated the effect of leading questions on recall. In the first week of the semester, university students were randomly allocated to two groups (Group A and Group B) and asked to estimate how often they ate chocolate during the summer holidays. Different forms of the question were used for each group:
• 'Did you eat chocolate frequently and, if so, how much per week?'
• 'Did you eat chocolate occasionally and, if so, how much per week?'
The table below represents Dr Dhanial's results.
| Group | Leading word | Estimate of chocolate consumption per week |
|---|---|---|
| A | frequently | 4.1 |
| B | occasionally | 0.8 |
The independent variable in Dr Dhanial's study was the
fallibility of memory.
wording of the question.
reconstruction of memory.
estimation of eating chocolate.
Reveal Answer
fallibility of memory.
The fallibility of memory is the broader psychological concept being investigated, not the specific variable manipulated by the researcher.
wording of the question.
The independent variable is what the researcher manipulates, which in this study is the wording of the question ('frequently' vs. 'occasionally').
reconstruction of memory.
Memory reconstruction is a theoretical process that might explain the results, rather than the independent variable manipulated in the experiment.
estimation of eating chocolate.
The estimation of chocolate consumption is the dependent variable, as it is the outcome being measured in response to the manipulated question.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Researchers conducted a study to compare the effects of a single night of partial sleep deprivation (less than five hours of sleep) to no sleep deprivation (eight hours of sleep) on participants’ performance in a driving simulator. The results showed that a night of partial sleep deprivation had an impact on behavioural measures of sleepiness.
The data from the driving simulator has been shown to be valid in several road safety studies.
This means
the data is precise.
outliers have been removed from the dataset.
the results of the research can be applied to all adults.
the data is appropriate to assess the effects of sleep deprivation.
Reveal Answer
the data is precise.
Precision refers to the consistency or reliability of the data, not its validity. A measure can be precise without being valid.
outliers have been removed from the dataset.
Removing outliers is a data cleaning process. It does not define whether the measurement tool itself is valid.
the results of the research can be applied to all adults.
The ability to apply results to all adults refers to external validity or generalizability, which depends on the sample used, not just the validity of the measurement tool.
the data is appropriate to assess the effects of sleep deprivation.
Validity means that a tool measures what it claims to measure. Therefore, valid simulator data is an appropriate and accurate measure to assess the effects of sleep deprivation on driving performance.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Ekon wants to join his local emergency volunteer group. The volunteer group has identified five risk factors that could potentially impair a volunteer's social and emotional wellbeing while they are in the role. Using an online questionnaire, Ekon rates himself against each of the factors on a rating of 1-10, with 1 indicating low risk and 10 indicating high risk.
The type of research method used in this scenario was
interview with objective data.
self-report with quantitative data.
questionnaire with qualitative data.
repeated measures with experimental data.
Reveal Answer
interview with objective data.
The scenario describes an online questionnaire, not an interview. Additionally, self-ratings are considered subjective data rather than objective.
self-report with quantitative data.
An online questionnaire where a participant rates themselves is a self-report method, and the 1-10 rating scale produces numerical, quantitative data.
questionnaire with qualitative data.
Although a questionnaire was used, the 1-10 rating scale generates numerical (quantitative) data, not descriptive (qualitative) data.
repeated measures with experimental data.
The scenario describes a simple survey, not an experiment with manipulated variables or a repeated measures design.
Use the following information to answer the question.
A research study investigated the changes to blood flow in the face that occur when encountering stress. Forty participants were involved in a study that placed them, one at a time, in a fake jewellery store.
Twenty participants were in the 'deception condition' and were told to enter the store and steal a necklace. Following this, these participants entered an interview room where they were asked eight questions about the scenario. Those in the 'deception condition' had been told to lie in all their answers.
The other 20 participants were in the 'control condition'.
During the interview, all participants were connected to a thermal imaging machine where changes to blood flow in the face could be measured. Higher results of thermal imaging indicated higher blood flow to that specific facial area.
Source: Adapted from A Derakshan et al., 'Network physiology of "fight or flight" response in facial superficial blood vessels', Physiological Measurement, vol 40, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/aaf089
Analysis of the thermal imaging of all facial areas found that increased blood flow correctly predicted the participants' deception at a rate of 67.1%. The researchers were then able to improve the deception prediction rate to 87.1% by analysing only a limited number of facial areas.
This improvement in deception prediction rate indicates
the brain diverts blood to specific areas in response to a stressor.
the increase in blood to facial areas is not a reliable indicator of stress.
an increase in blood flow to all facial areas occurs regardless of the stressor type.
the central nervous system processes, but does not coordinate, physiological responses to a stressor.
Reveal Answer
the brain diverts blood to specific areas in response to a stressor.
The fact that analyzing specific facial areas improved the prediction rate suggests that the physiological response to stress involves localized changes in blood flow, which are coordinated by the brain.
the increase in blood to facial areas is not a reliable indicator of stress.
The high prediction rate of 87.1% demonstrates that localized facial blood flow is actually a reliable indicator of stress, contradicting this statement.
an increase in blood flow to all facial areas occurs regardless of the stressor type.
If blood flow increased equally to all facial areas, analyzing a limited number of areas would not have significantly improved the prediction rate.
the central nervous system processes, but does not coordinate, physiological responses to a stressor.
The central nervous system both processes and coordinates physiological responses to stressors, such as directing blood flow to specific areas of the face.