VCAA Psychology How do people learn and remember?
15 sample questions with marking guides and sample answers
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning and knowledge are fundamentally different from Western approaches.
One unique aspect of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of learning is that
the learner is involved in collaborative activities.
knowledge is held by the teacher and received by the student.
learning is interwoven and relational to kinship through Country.
the multimodal system is a collection of artefacts that are brought together to create a successful learning environment.
Reveal Answer
the learner is involved in collaborative activities.
Collaborative learning is a common pedagogical strategy in many educational systems, including Western approaches, so it is not unique to Indigenous ways of learning.
knowledge is held by the teacher and received by the student.
This describes a traditional Western, didactic model of education (often called the 'banking model'), which contrasts with Indigenous approaches that are typically more experiential, shared, and community-based.
learning is interwoven and relational to kinship through Country.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge systems are deeply holistic, where learning is intrinsically connected to relationships, kinship, and a profound, ongoing connection to Country.
the multimodal system is a collection of artefacts that are brought together to create a successful learning environment.
While multimodal learning can be part of Indigenous education, the use of various artifacts to create a learning environment is also a standard practice in Western education and is not uniquely Indigenous.
Feinstein et al. (2010) conducted an investigation on a human patient, SM, who had a pre-existing brain lesion and was unable to experience fear. Researchers sought to invoke fear in SM by exposing them to live snakes and spiders and taking them on a tour of a haunted house. During each of these occasions SM did not exhibit any fear. In what part of the brain did SM most likely have a lesion?
cerebrum
amygdala
cerebellum
primary motor cortex
Reveal Answer
cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and controls a vast array of functions including thought, memory, and senses. While the amygdala is located within the cerebrum, a general lesion to the cerebrum would cause widespread cognitive deficits rather than a specific lack of fear.
amygdala
The amygdala is the primary brain structure responsible for processing emotions, particularly fear and threat detection. Patient SM is a well-known case study where bilateral damage to the amygdala resulted in the specific inability to experience fear.
cerebellum
The cerebellum is primarily involved in motor control, coordination, balance, and motor learning. It is not the central structure for processing emotional responses like fear.
primary motor cortex
The primary motor cortex is responsible for the execution of voluntary movements. A lesion here would result in motor deficits or paralysis, not a selective inability to experience fear.
In Watson and Rayner’s (1920) Little Albert experiment, a loud noise was repeatedly paired with presentation of a rat. Little Albert’s crying when the rat was later shown is an example of
an unconditioned response.
an unconditioned stimulus.
a conditioned response.
a conditioned stimulus.
Reveal Answer
an unconditioned response.
An unconditioned response is an innate, unlearned reaction to a stimulus. In this experiment, crying in response to the loud noise itself would be the unconditioned response.
an unconditioned stimulus.
An unconditioned stimulus is a trigger that naturally elicits a response without prior learning. In this experiment, the loud noise served as the unconditioned stimulus.
a conditioned response.
A conditioned response is a learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus. Since Albert learned to cry in response to the rat due to its association with the noise, this behavior is a conditioned response.
a conditioned stimulus.
A conditioned stimulus is the object or event that triggers a learned response. In this scenario, the rat is the conditioned stimulus, not the act of crying.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Physical education teachers often demonstrate a desired motor skill and then ask their students to perform the same skill in the next lesson. The teacher then provides them with encouraging and focused feedback while they practise the motor skill.
As students master the desired action, the memory of the motor skill involves the
neocortex and hippocampus, as it is an explicit memory.
basal ganglia and cerebellum, as it is an implicit memory.
hippocampus and cerebellum, as it is an implicit memory.
hippocampus, neocortex and amygdala, as it is an explicit memory.
Reveal Answer
neocortex and hippocampus, as it is an explicit memory.
Motor skills are procedural memories, which are a type of implicit memory, not explicit memory. The neocortex and hippocampus are primarily involved in explicit memory.
basal ganglia and cerebellum, as it is an implicit memory.
Motor skills are procedural memories, which are a type of implicit memory. The basal ganglia and cerebellum are the key brain structures involved in the formation and storage of implicit memories.
hippocampus and cerebellum, as it is an implicit memory.
While the cerebellum is involved in implicit memory, the hippocampus is primarily responsible for explicit memory consolidation, making this pairing incorrect.
hippocampus, neocortex and amygdala, as it is an explicit memory.
Motor skills are implicit memories, not explicit memories. The hippocampus, neocortex, and amygdala are involved in explicit and emotional memories.
Explain the formation of gender roles from the perspective of social learning theory. Use an example of primary socialisation in your response.
Reveal Answer
Social learning theory focuses on learning by observation. In the case of gender roles, the behaviour of same-gender models is observed and imitated.
For example, primary socialisation takes place when children observe and imitate the behaviours of same-gender parents.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Explains the formation of gender roles through social learning | 1 |
Provides an example of primary socialisation | 1 |
Use the following information to answer the question.
Study 1: The characteristics of 'event memories' in dogs
Recent research has summarised numerous case studies regarding the autobiographical memory of dogs. Findings suggest that dogs have long-term memories of past events, as 80% of owners reported that their pet had shown signs of remembering an event. The most reported long-term memories involved dogs locating hidden items.
The following is an excerpt of a case study collected during Study 1.
Case Study A: One owner reported that their dog had escaped through their fence to the neighbour's house, then in through the neighbour's cat door to eat the cat's food. Several years later, on a day when their dog had not been fed, it again escaped through the same fence and in through the same neighbour's cat door to get to the food.
Source: Adapted from A Lewis and D Berntsen, 'Pet memoirs: The characteristics of event memories in cats and dogs, as reported by their owners', Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2020, 222 [104885] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104885
The study defined an 'event memory' as an experience or event that occurred in the past and was later recalled. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory, an 'event memory' would involve
all sensory memory being retained and retrieved.
the visual information being attended to and encoded.
the retrieval of short-term memory to echoic sensory memory.
the use of rehearsal to transfer sensory memory to short-term memory.
Reveal Answer
all sensory memory being retained and retrieved.
Sensory memory holds a vast amount of information but only for a fraction of a second. Only a small portion of sensory memory is attended to and retained, not all of it.
the visual information being attended to and encoded.
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, sensory information (such as visual details of an event) must be attended to in order to enter short-term memory, and then encoded to be stored in long-term memory for later recall.
the retrieval of short-term memory to echoic sensory memory.
Information flows from sensory memory to short-term memory, not the other way around. Retrieval involves bringing information from long-term memory back into short-term memory.
the use of rehearsal to transfer sensory memory to short-term memory.
Attention, not rehearsal, is the process required to transfer information from sensory memory to short-term memory. Rehearsal is used to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
Provide an example of stimulus generalisation in operant conditioning.
Reveal Answer
An example of stimulus generalisation is the pressing of various structures in a ‘Skinner box’, not just the lever.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Provides an example of stimulus generalisation in operant conditioning | 1 |
Explain the use of negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning. Provide one example of each.
Reveal Answer
In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement increases the frequency of the target behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus in response to the behaviour. An example is a shock turning off when a rat in a Skinner box presses a lever.
Positive reinforcement increases the frequency of the target behaviour by providing a pleasant stimulus in response to the behaviour. An example is a food reward given to a rat when a lever is pressed.
Punishments decrease the frequency of the target behaviour by introducing negative stimuli or by removing positive stimuli. An example is a rat receiving a shock when a lever is pressed, thereby reducing the frequency of lever pressing.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Explains use of negative reinforcement | 1 |
Explains use of positive reinforcement | 1 |
Explains use of punishment | 1 |
Provides an example of negative reinforcement | 1 |
Provides an example of positive reinforcement | 1 |
Provides an example of punishment | 1 |
Use the following information to answer the question.
Justin is listening to the radio in his car when a 'guess the song' competition is announced. Justin thinks he knows the song, so he listens for the phone number to call.
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory, when Justin wants to retrieve the phone number from long-term memory, the number will be
recalled directly from long-term memory.
moved from long-term memory to short-term memory.
moved from long-term memory directly to sensory memory.
moved from long-term memory to sensory memory, via short-term memory.
Reveal Answer
recalled directly from long-term memory.
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, information cannot be consciously processed directly in long-term memory; it must be transferred to short-term memory first.
moved from long-term memory to short-term memory.
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, retrieval is the process of transferring information from long-term memory back into short-term memory for conscious use.
moved from long-term memory directly to sensory memory.
Information is not transferred back to sensory memory, which only briefly holds raw sensory input from the environment before it is passed to short-term memory.
moved from long-term memory to sensory memory, via short-term memory.
While information retrieved from long-term memory does enter short-term memory, it does not continue on to sensory memory.
Many species of birds can be conditioned to avoid predators by pairing the sound of the predator with an unpleasant stimulus, such as a puff of air. Over time, the birds learn that the sound of the predator alone is dangerous.
Name the behaviourist approach to learning that is discussed in this scenario and outline the three-phase process of conditioning to avoid predators.
Reveal Answer
This scenario discusses classical conditioning as a behaviorist approach to learning, where learning occurs through the repeated association between 2 or more different stimuli to produce a naturally occurring response. Before conditioning, the birds sound of the predator was the NS which produced no response and a puff of air was the UCS which naturally produced the UCR of danger/fear of the puff of air. During conditioning, the NS and UCS were repeatedly associated, with the NS of predator sound presented immediately before the UCS of the puff of air to produce a fear response UCR. After conditioning, due to acquisition occurring, the NS of the predator sound is now the CS which produces the CR of danger/fear to the sound of the predator. The sound of the predator was now able to produce the CR without the UCS being presented after. Since danger/fear now automatically occurred when hearing the sound of the predator, birds were conditioned to avoid the predators due to the feeling of fear.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Identifies the behaviourist approach as classical conditioning | 1 |
States that the sound of the predator elicits no relevant response | 1 |
States that the sound of the predator is repeatedly presented before the puff of air to elicit a fear (or avoidance) response | 1 |
States that the sound of the predator alone will now produce the fear (or avoidance) response | 1 |
Use the following information to answer the question.
A study explored which paper-folding techniques are more easily learnt by four-year-old children. Researchers observed 30 children in their kindergarten classrooms while the children folded paper.
During the study, a piece of paper cuts a child’s finger and the child quickly withdraws their hand.
The memory of the fine motor skills required for paper-folding is stored in the
neocortex, because this is a semantic memory.
cerebellum, because this is an implicit memory.
basal ganglia, because this is an explicit memory.
hippocampus, because this is a procedural memory.
Reveal Answer
neocortex, because this is a semantic memory.
Fine motor skills are procedural memories, not semantic memories. Semantic memories are explicit memories of facts and general knowledge, which are stored in the neocortex.
cerebellum, because this is an implicit memory.
Fine motor skills are a type of procedural memory, which is a form of implicit memory. The cerebellum plays a crucial role in the learning and storage of these implicit motor skills.
basal ganglia, because this is an explicit memory.
While the basal ganglia are indeed involved in procedural memory and motor control, motor skills are a type of implicit memory, not explicit memory.
hippocampus, because this is a procedural memory.
Although motor skills are procedural memories, the hippocampus is primarily responsible for the consolidation of explicit memories (like episodic and semantic memories), not procedural ones.
Use the following information to answer the question.
As Vanessa walked to school one morning, she was swooped by a magpie. The magpie caused an injury to her head, which required stitches. Since the injury, Vanessa ducks her head and looks around regularly for a swooping bird. Vanessa refuses to walk to school even when swooping season ends.
Vanessa's response is an example of
a learned behaviour.
a conscious reaction.
a reflexive and voluntary response.
an adaptive response to a feared stimulus.
Reveal Answer
a learned behaviour.
Vanessa's response was acquired through her specific experience with the magpie, making it a learned behavior resulting from conditioning.
a conscious reaction.
While refusing to walk to school involves conscious choice, her ducking and looking around are likely automatic, conditioned responses rather than purely conscious reactions.
a reflexive and voluntary response.
Reflexes are innate, involuntary responses present from birth, whereas Vanessa's behavior was learned from a specific traumatic event.
an adaptive response to a feared stimulus.
Her response is maladaptive, not adaptive, because it interferes with her daily functioning (refusing to walk to school) even after the actual threat has ended.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Study 1: The characteristics of 'event memories' in dogs
Recent research has summarised numerous case studies regarding the autobiographical memory of dogs. Findings suggest that dogs have long-term memories of past events, as 80% of owners reported that their pet had shown signs of remembering an event. The most reported long-term memories involved dogs locating hidden items.
The following is an excerpt of a case study collected during Study 1.
Case Study A: One owner reported that their dog had escaped through their fence to the neighbour's house, then in through the neighbour's cat door to eat the cat's food. Several years later, on a day when their dog had not been fed, it again escaped through the same fence and in through the same neighbour's cat door to get to the food.
Source: Adapted from A Lewis and D Berntsen, 'Pet memoirs: The characteristics of event memories in cats and dogs, as reported by their owners', Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2020, 222 [104885] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104885
The dog owner's memory of their dog's behaviour could be explained by the
amygdala storing the feeling of embarrassment caused by the event.
encoding of semantic autobiographical memory by the hippocampus.
storage of the implicit autobiographical memories in the hippocampus.
amygdala consolidating the spatial component of the location of the neighbour's house.
Reveal Answer
amygdala storing the feeling of embarrassment caused by the event.
While the amygdala is involved in processing and consolidating emotional memories, it does not store the explicit, factual details of the event itself.
encoding of semantic autobiographical memory by the hippocampus.
The hippocampus is responsible for encoding explicit (declarative) memories, which include the semantic and episodic components that make up autobiographical memories.
storage of the implicit autobiographical memories in the hippocampus.
Autobiographical memories are explicit (declarative) memories, not implicit. Additionally, implicit memories are typically processed by the cerebellum and basal ganglia, not the hippocampus.
amygdala consolidating the spatial component of the location of the neighbour's house.
The hippocampus, rather than the amygdala, is the primary brain structure responsible for encoding and consolidating spatial memories, such as the location of a house.
Describe extinction after operant conditioning and provide an example.
Reveal Answer
Extinction is when the conditioned response disappears over time after reinforcement has ceased.
For example, a child might learn that their use of a bad word causes adults around them to laugh. They continue this behaviour until the parent tells the adults to stop laughing and ignore the bad behaviour. After a few weeks, the child no longer uses the bad word for attention.
| Descriptor | Marks |
|---|---|
Describes extinction after operant conditioning in terms of the conditioned response | 1 |
Provides a relevant example | 1 |
Which one of the following is most likely to be experienced following brain trauma that results in a diagnosis of anterograde amnesia?
poor recall of memories
difficulty forming new memories
loss of both explicit and implicit memories
an inability to recall events prior to the damage
Reveal Answer
poor recall of memories
While memory is impaired, this description is too broad. Anterograde amnesia specifically affects the creation of new memories rather than just the general recall of existing ones.
difficulty forming new memories
Anterograde amnesia is defined as the inability to form new memories following brain trauma, typically due to damage to the hippocampus preventing memory consolidation.
loss of both explicit and implicit memories
Anterograde amnesia primarily impairs the formation of new explicit (declarative) memories, while the ability to form new implicit (procedural) memories usually remains intact.
an inability to recall events prior to the damage
The inability to recall events that occurred prior to the brain damage is the definition of retrograde amnesia, not anterograde amnesia.
Use the following information to answer the question.
Hannah is a university student who has recently signed a lease to move into a rental property in an apartment block. Hannah enjoys the freedom of having her own apartment. Since moving into her new apartment, Hannah has hosted loud parties most weekends. This has resulted in her neighbours making a formal complaint to her landlord. Hannah’s landlord has sent her an official letter stating that her lease will be terminated if she continues to have loud parties.
Which one of the following actions is most likely to reinforce quiet and considerate behaviour from Hannah?
the police being called when she has a loud party
her neighbours not reacting when she has a loud party
her neighbours waiting outside as guests arrive for a party
being given compliments by her neighbours when she has a quiet party
Reveal Answer
the police being called when she has a loud party
Calling the police is a form of punishment, which aims to decrease the unwanted behaviour (loud parties) rather than actively reinforce the desired behaviour.
her neighbours not reacting when she has a loud party
Ignoring the behaviour is a form of extinction, which may eventually reduce the loud parties but does not actively reinforce quiet and considerate behaviour.
her neighbours waiting outside as guests arrive for a party
Neighbours waiting outside acts as a deterrent or punishment for having a party, rather than a reinforcement for quiet behaviour.
being given compliments by her neighbours when she has a quiet party
Compliments act as positive reinforcement, adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of the desired behaviour (quiet and considerate parties) occurring again.